The Open Society and Its Enemies

Lore & Background

The book is divided into two volumes: 'The Spell of Plato' and 'The High Tide of Prophecy: Hegel, Marx, and the Aftermath'. The first volume focuses on Plato, arguing that his political philosophy has dangerous tendencies towards totalitarianism, contrary to the benign idyll portrayed by most interpreters. Popper praises Plato's analysis of social change but rejects his solutions, which he sees as driven by fear of change brought about by the rise of democracies, and as contrary to the humanitarian and democratic views of Socrates and other thinkers of the Athenian 'Great Generation'. The second volume focuses on Karl Marx. Popper also criticizes Hegel, tracing his ideas to Aristotle and arguing that they were at the root of philosophical underpinnings of 20th century totalitarianism. He agrees with Schopenhauer's view that Hegel 'was a flat-headed, insipid, nauseating, illiterate charlatan, who reached the pinnacle of audacity in scribbling together and dishing up the craziest mystifying nonsense.' Popper criticizes Marx at length for his historicism, which he believes led him to overstate his case, and rejects his radical and revolutionary outlook.

Reader's Guide

The Open Society and Its Enemies is significant for its sustained critique of historicism—the doctrine that history is controlled by specific historical or evolutionary laws whose discovery would enable us to prophesy the destiny of man—and its defence of liberal democracy. Written during World War II, it was published in 1945 in London by Routledge. A one-volume edition with a new introduction by Alan Ryan and an essay by E. H. Gombrich was published by Princeton University Press in 2013. The work was listed as one of the Modern Library Board's 100 Best Nonfiction books of the 20th century. Popper advocates for direct liberal democracy as the only form of government that allows institutional improvements without violence and bloodshed. Key analytical tools introduced in the work include the distinction between methodological essentialism and methodological nominalism, and between natural laws and normative laws.

Did You Know?

• The Open Society and Its Enemies was written during World War II and published in 1945 in London by Routledge.
• Popper endorses Schopenhauer's view that Hegel 'was a flat-headed, insipid, nauseating, illiterate charlatan.'
• The work was listed as one of the Modern Library Board's 100 Best Nonfiction books of the 20th century.
• A one-volume edition with a new introduction by Alan Ryan and an essay by E. H. Gombrich was published by Princeton University Press in 2013.
• Popper identifies 'the doctrine of the chosen people' as an example of historicism, growing out of the tribal form of social life.

The War Against Historicism

Popper's central intellectual project in this work is a sustained assault on what he calls teleological historicism—the conviction that human history follows predetermined, universal laws toward an inevitable endpoint. He traces this thinking back to ancient roots, identifying Heraclitus's belief in universal change and hidden destiny enforced by punishment as an early manifestation, and sees in the 'doctrine of the chosen people' a tribal ancestor of later historicist systems. Popper argues that this approach gives poor results in the social sciences and instead outlines a method that he believes would yield better results. He champions the 'social engineer,' who believes that humans can control history to achieve their goals and sees politics as a tool to build and modify social institutions, evaluating them based on their design, efficiency, and other practical factors. The historicist, by contrast, is interested in understanding the past, present, and future significance of institutions, evaluating them based on their historical role, such as if they are divinely willed or serving important historical trends. Popper further distinguishes two modern incarnations of historicism: the historical philosophy of racialism or fascism on the political right, and the Marxian historical philosophy on the left. Both, he contends, base their historical forecasts on an interpretation of history which leads to the discovery of a law of its development.

Three Philosophers Under Indictment

Popper directs his sharpest criticism at three towering figures of Western thought. Plato, he argues, harbors dangerous tendencies toward totalitarianism that most interpreters have obscured behind a benign reading of his dialogues. While Popper credits Plato with a perceptive analysis of social change, he rejects the philosopher's proposed solutions, seeing them as products of fear triggered by the rise of Athenian democracy and as fundamentally at odds with the humanitarian and democratic spirit of Socrates and the broader 'Great Generation.' Hegel receives even more scathing treatment. Popper traces Hegel's ideas back to Aristotle and argues they provided the philosophical scaffolding for twentieth-century totalitarianism. He endorses Schopenhauer's blistering verdict that Hegel was a 'flat-headed, insipid, nauseating, illiterate charlatan' who produced 'the craziest mystifying nonsense.' Marx is critiqued at length for his reliance on historicism, which Popper believes led him to overstate his case, and his radical, revolutionary outlook is firmly rejected.

A Wartime Masterpiece and Its Afterlife

Written during World War II, The Open Society and Its Enemies was published in 1945 in London by Routledge. The first volume, subtitled 'The Spell of Plato,' is organized into four sections spanning ten chapters plus an unnumbered section of Addenda, covering everything from the myth of origin and destiny through Plato's political programme and the background of his attack. The second volume, 'The High Tide of Prophecy: Hegel, Marx, and the Aftermath,' turns its attention to the later thinkers. A one-volume edition with a new introduction by Alan Ryan and an essay by E. H. Gombrich was published by Princeton University Press in 2013. The work was listed as one of the Modern Library Board's 100 Best Nonfiction books of the 20th century.

Defending the Open Society

At the heart of Popper's argument lies a positive vision: the open society, sustained through liberal democracy, stands as the only form of government capable of permitting institutional improvement without resorting to violence and bloodshed. Popper distinguishes between two modes of social engineering—piecemeal and utopian—and aligns himself firmly with the former, which evaluates and adjusts institutions based on their concrete design and practical performance rather than their place in some grand historical narrative. His rejection of Marx's revolutionary outlook and Plato's static, unchanging ideal state flows directly from this commitment. Popper advocates for direct liberal democracy as the only form of government that allows institutional improvements without violence and bloodshed.